Stigma and the Dehumanization of Palestinians: A Goffmanian Perspective

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Erving Goffman’s seminal work, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963), has provided a robust framework for understanding how social stigma operates to mark individuals or groups as “other”—a process deeply intertwined with dehumanization. This framework is particularly relevant when examining the treatment of Palestinians, whose experiences of marginalization and dehumanization are underpinned by stigmatizing media and political discourses and policies on Muslims and Arabs.

Goffman’s Stigma Theory

Goffman defines stigma as an “attribute that is deeply discrediting” and reduces the bearer “from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one” (Goffman, 1963:3). He categorizes stigma into three types: physical deformities, blemishes of character, and tribal stigmas, the latter referring to race, ethnicity, and religion. Tribal stigmas offer a lens to understand how Palestinians have been collectively marked as “undesirable” or “threatening” based on their perceived identities.

Dehumanization as an Extension of Stigma

Dehumanization involves stripping individuals or groups of their humanity, rendering them as less than human. Scholars such as Nick Haslam (2006) distinguish between two forms of dehumanization: animalistic and mechanistic. Animalistic dehumanization portrays groups as savage or uncivilized, while mechanistic dehumanization views them as devoid of agency or individuality.

Both forms are observable in stigmatizing representations of Palestinians who are often wrongly assumed to all be Muslims. For example, media narratives often depict Muslims as inherently violent or irrational—an animalistic trope that is ascribed to Palestinians who are almost portrayed as nameless figures in a geopolitical struggle – harmful erasure of their individuality and humanity.

Stigma and the Dehumanization of Palestinians

The stigmatization of Palestinians is deeply tied to colonial narratives about Muslims and Arabs and geopolitical interests in the Middle East. Goffman’s concept of “symbolic interaction”—where social identity is negotiated through interactions—is crucial to understanding this process. The Palestinian identity has been shaped in global discourse as synonymous with Islam and its erroneous association to “terrorism”- a stigma that dehumanizes and delegitimizes the 75+ years of the Indigenous Palestinian struggle for self-determination.

For example, Said (1978) argues in Orientalism that Western portrayals of Arabs, including Palestinians, are rooted in a “discourse of power” that constructs them as the antithesis of modernity and civilization. This aligns with Goffman’s observation that stigma serves to reinforce existing power hierarchies by maintaining the dominant group’s sense of superiority.  In October 2023, Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant referred to Palestinians as “human animals,” stating, “We are fighting human animals and we are acting accordingly”. But the dehumanization of Palestinians is not new, as is evidenced by former Prime Minister Menachem Begin’s 1982 address to the Knesset, in which he likened Palestinians to “two-footed beasts”.

Islamophobia and the Stigmatization of Muslims

Muslims globally face stigma rooted in Islamophobia, which escalated post-9/11. In Goffmanian terms, Muslims are marked with a “blemish of character” based on stereotypes of extremism and violence. This stigmatization operates through what Goffman calls “public identity”—the image constructed by societal narratives—which portrays Muslims as a monolithic group threatening Western values.

Political rhetoric and media portrayals reinforce this stigma. Studies, such as those by Saeed (2007), highlight how Western media routinely associate Islam with terrorism, further entrenching stigmatizing perceptions. These narratives fuel policies that dehumanize Muslims, such as discriminatory immigration laws and surveillance programs that treat Muslims as security threats rather than citizens.

The Symbiotic Relationship Between Discredited and Discreditable Stigma

Goffman’s distinction between the “discredited”—those whose stigma is visible—and the “discreditable”—those whose stigma is not immediately apparent but can be revealed—is deeply relevant to understanding the compounded stigmatization of Palestinians. Palestinians are often discreditable due to their association with Islam, which in itself is stigmatized in many global contexts. This latent stigma can manifest through stereotypes that mark them as potential threats or extremists, even when their circumstances and actions – resistance to oppression and apartheid, do not align with such labels.

However, when Palestinians are physically maimed or disabled as a result of illegal military occupation and violence, they begin to occupy both the “discreditable” (symbolic) and “discredited” (physical) categories. Their physical injuries become visible markers of their “spoiled identity,” subjecting them to additional layers of dehumanization. In this context, their suffering is not perceived as a cause for empathy but rather as a confirmation of their stigmatized identity. This dual process illustrates the symbiotic relationship between the discreditable and discredited, where one form of stigma reinforces and amplifies the other.

Social Media and the Dehumanization of Palestinians

Social media has emerged as a powerful tool for sharing the suffering of Palestinians, yet its use has also compounded their dehumanization. Graphic images of maimed, limbless, severely burned, or blind adults and children are frequently shared to evoke public empathy and awareness. However, according to Goffman’s theory, these images can instead evoke “disgust” and reinforce stigma. Goffman explains that individuals often react negatively to visible markers of stigma, such as physical deformities, because they challenge societal norms of wholeness and health.

Rather than fostering compassion, the repeated exposure to these images can lead to emotional fatigue and a desensitization that dehumanizes the subjects of the photographs and videos. Viewers may come to associate the physical suffering of Palestinians with an inherent difference or flaw, reinforcing their stigmatized identity. This phenomenon highlights a troubling dynamic where the intent to humanize through visibility instead tragically results in further discrediting those depicted. As Goffman notes, visible stigmas become “the focus of attention” (1963, p. 15), overshadowing the individuality and humanity of the person bearing them.

Additionally, the stigma of physical deformities is often paired with the discreditable elements of long held orientalist beliefs about Muslims and Arabs coming from war torn nations victim to oppressive governments. This association exacerbates the dehumanization of Palestinians, as their physical suffering and injuries are viewed through the lens of broader cultural and religious stereotypes. Furthermore, their emotional responses to the physical wounds and violence—such as crying, screaming, or expressing anger—are interpreted as further evidence of their stigmatized identity. These reactions are often framed as “uncivilized” or “barbaric”, reinforcing perceptions of Palestinians over there as inherently different to us westerners over here, and therefore, undeserving of our compassion.

As such, there appears to be an implicit expectation that Palestinians should suffer in silence and respond to violence with stoic dignity in order to be deemed worthy of empathy by Western audiences. Such an expectation reflects a deeply ingrained ethnocentric and ethnosupremacist bias that delegitimizes the natural human responses of grief and anger, further marginalizing Palestinians in the global narrative.

Stigma, Advocacy, and the Spoiled Identity of Palestinian Supporters

Interestingly, it has become apparent that this stigmatization extends not only to Palestinians themselves but also to those advocating for their rights, particularly in Western contexts. Anti-genocide advocates and activists have experienced “spoiled identity,” as they challenge dominant narratives and power structures. This spoiled identity is reinforced through tangible repercussions, such as losing jobs, awards, or professional titles, when their activism is perceived as controversial or oppositional.

In Western societies, where professional and social worth is often measured by status symbols such as degrees, awards, and titles, the loss of these markers due to advocacy can have profound implications. The discrediting of anti-genocide advocates not only reinforces the stigma associated with their activism but also serves as proof of their spoiled identity. Losing these societal validations—whether through job dismissals or the rescinding of honors—transitions advocates from being discreditable to discredited in the public eye. Their diminished status becomes a visible marker of their stigmatized position, which further delegitimizes their cause and isolates them from mainstream acceptance.

For instance, individuals advocating for Palestinian rights may be labeled as anti-Semitic or accused of supporting terrorism, stigmatizing them as morally or politically deviant. These false associations and accusations often result in the loss of social capital, which in turn further validates their discrediting. This dynamic discourages others from engaging in similar advocacy and perpetuates the broader stigma associated with Palestinian identity and support. By discrediting supporters, dominant narratives delegitimize the Palestinian cause itself, framing it as unworthy of support.

Effects of Stigma on Mental Health and Social Mobility

The stigma and spoiled identity experienced by Palestinians, Muslims, Arabs and those advocating for them have profound effects on their mental health, well-being, and social mobility. Stigma can lead to chronic stress, anxiety, and depression, as individuals face persistent discrimination and dehumanization. This is compounded by structural barriers, such as reduced access to education, employment, and social resources, which hinder upward mobility.

For example, studies have shown that Islamophobia contributes to increased rates of mental health issues among Muslims in Western societies. Similarly, Palestinians living under occupation face compounded trauma from both direct violence and the stigma associated with their identity, further exacerbating their mental health struggles. Racism and discrimination also limit opportunities for social mobility. Stereotypes about Arabs and Muslims as untrustworthy or dangerous can result in workplace discrimination and social exclusion, reinforcing cycles of poverty and marginalization.

Research indicates that Islamophobia significantly impacts the mental health of Muslims in Western societies. A study published in Collabra: Psychology highlights the widespread nature of Islamophobia across North America, Europe, New Zealand, and Australia, and explores its detrimental effects on the psychological well-being of Muslims residing in these regions. Additionally, an article in TIME discusses how Islamophobia and anti-Palestinian bias induce a state of hypervigilance among Muslims, leading to harmful mental health implications. The constant need to navigate a stigmatized identity, coupled with the fear of discrimination or violence, creates  psychologically unsafe environments and emotional exhaustion.

For Palestinians living under occupation, continuous exposure to political violence and displacement has been linked to elevated rates of anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A literature review in the International Journal of Mental Health Systems emphasizes the high risk of developing these conditions due to ongoing conflict and limited access to mental health services. A report by the Centre for Mental Health reveals that, as of 2020, half of the children in Gaza were already suffering from PTSD, a figure likely higher following recent escalations.

Regarding social mobility, stereotypes portraying Arabs and Muslims as untrustworthy or dangerous contribute to workplace discrimination and social exclusion. A meta-analysis published in Personnel Assessment and Decisions found evidence of discrimination against Muslim and Arab individuals in employment decisions across multiple countries. Additionally, research from Rice University indicates that 66% of Muslim employees in the U.S. reported experiencing workplace discrimination, including negative comments, stereotyping, and social exclusion, often leading them to conceal their religious identity. These systemic inequities underscore the intersection of stigma and structural violence, where dehumanizing narratives manifest as tangible social and economic disadvantages for Muslim and Arab communities.

Countering Stigma and Reclaiming Humanity

Addressing the stigma and dehumanization of Palestinians, Arabs, Muslims, and those advocating for their human rights requires dismantling the narratives that perpetuate these processes. Goffman’s work emphasizes the agency of stigmatized groups in managing their identities. Palestinians, Arabs, and Muslims have increasingly utilized social media and cultural production to challenge dehumanizing representations and assert their humanity.

However, reducing stigma also necessitates a focus on what Goffman terms “normals”—those who are not stigmatized but participate in the reinforcement of stigma through societal norms and behaviors. Challenging the biases and assumptions held by these groups is critical to dismantling systemic stigma. Educational initiatives, media representation reforms, and intergroup dialogues can help reshape perceptions and foster empathy.

Additionally, addressing institutionalized stigma requires policy changes that challenge the criminalization and marginalization of stigmatized identities. This includes advocating for anti-discrimination laws, equitable representation in media and politics, and accountability for policies that perpetuate structural violence. By targeting both individual attitudes and systemic practices, efforts to counter stigma can create a more inclusive and equitable society.

Goffman’s theory of stigma provides a powerful lens to analyze the dehumanization of Palestinians, Arabs, and Muslims. The processes of marking these groups as “other” are not merely symbolic but have tangible implications, reinforcing structural violence and marginalization. By understanding and addressing these stigmatizing mechanisms, we can work toward a more just and equitable world where the human rights of all human being are recognized and valued.

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References

Butler, J. (2004). Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. Verso.

Centre for Mental Health. (2020). No Safe Place in Mind: Mental Health and Trauma in Gaza. Retrieved from https://www.centreformentalhealth.org.uk

Collabra: Psychology. (Year). Discrimination, Life Stress, and Mental Health Among Muslims in Western Societies. Retrieved from https://online.ucpress.edu

Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Prentice-Hall.

Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(3), 252–264.

International Journal of Mental Health Systems. (Year). Mental Health Challenges in Palestine: A Review of Research and Interventions. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Personnel Assessment and Decisions. (Year). Discrimination in Employment Decisions Against Arabs and Muslims. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu

Rice University. (Year). Muslim and Arab Employee Experiences of Workplace Discrimination. Retrieved from https://ing.org

Saeed, A. (2007). Media, racism and Islamophobia: The representation of Islam and Muslims in the media. Sociology Compass, 1(2), 443–462.

Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.

TIME. (Year). Islamophobia’s Effects on Mental Health. Retrieved from https://time.com.